Suicide Attacks: A Case Study in Turkey

Abstract

Today, terrorism is a world-wide problem. In particular, after 9/11, its impacts to global security and democracy have become the main issue. New strategies and methods to fight terrorism have been developed and brought into focus. Terrorism has been a major concern in Turkey for over 30 years. Turkey has lost more than 30,000 people in its fight against terrorism. During this time, however, much experience in counter-terrorism and in understanding of the nature of terrorism has been gained.

It is clear that the aim of terrorism is to spread violence, panic, and fear among people. In order to achieve this, the terrorists use various methods and tools. In this context, suicide attacks might be seen as the most sensational and destructive tool of terrorism.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the nature of the suicide attacks in Turkey from a multi-dimensional perspective. The paper presents a brief history of suicide attacks, and uses the Turkish case to illustrate the background to the development and use of suicide attacks. This is followed by suggestions on measures designed to prevent this type of attack.

Suicide Attacks: A Brief History

The suicide attack is defined as an act of violence in which the attacker or attackers intend and expect to die. In a suicide attack, in the narrow sense, the attacker dies by the attack itself; for example, the terrorist dies in an explosion or crash caused by the attacker. In the broadest sense of the word, it is understood that the attacker is sure or almost sure to die from the defense or retaliation of the attacked party.

The suicide attacks are often carried out with the help of vehicles or explosive materials such as a bomb (a suicide bombing), or combination of both (i.e., a vehicle loaded with explosives). If everything goes according to the plan, the attacker is killed upon the impact of detonation.

The suicide attacks are one of the tactics often planned and organized by military or paramilitary groups. The tactic became widely used during the Second World War in the Pacific as allied ships were attacked by Japanese kamikaze pilots who caused maximum damage by flying their explosive- laden aircraft into military targets (1). The first planned and systematic suicide attacks in the Middle East were carried out at the beginning of the 1980s (2), followed by those organized in other countries, for example in Sri Lanka, India, (3) and Pakistan. In the 1980s, the use of explosive-loaded vehicles was a common denominator in various suicide attacks. Later, terrorists used bombs placed on their bodies. In Turkey, suicide attacks have been carried out since 1996.

In the beginning, terrorists targeted foreign embassies and military subjects, but later on they also targeted civilians (4). The most shocking suicide attack was the September 11 (2001) attacks that targeted the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, DC that caused the death and injury of thousands of people. These attacks shook the entire world and are seen as a turning point in the fight against terrorism.

The events surrounding September 11 were followed by waves of suicide bombings after the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. American military targets as well as many civilian targets (e.g., Shiite mosques, international offices of the UN and Red Cross, Iraqis waiting to apply for jobs with the new army and police force) were attacked by the local insurgents. In the lead up to the Iraqi parliamentary election on January 30, 2005, suicide attacks upon civilian and security personnel involved with the elections increased, and there were reports of the insurgents co-opting disabled people as involuntary suicide bombers. Since March 2003, suicide bombings have occurred in more than 30 countries, including Turkey (5).

Now, almost every day one hears in the news about suicide attacks in Iraq. Here, it should be pointed out that the suicide attacks are not only effective on the local level, but also on the global level. That is why all countries and agencies, besides the intelligence and operational activities all over the world, should cooperate in understanding and coping with the problem. This paper intends to focus, in particular, on understanding the phenomenon of suicide attacks using the case of Turkey.

Turkey’s Experience with the Suicide Attacks

During its 30 years of fighting against terrorism, Turkey has witnessed many terrorist events, including suicide attacks that have been used by various terrorist organizations and groups. One of the most prominent is the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) (6), established in 1974 as a Marxist-Leninist insurgent and an armed terrorist organization. The PKK carried out terrorist activities (7), aiming to destroy Turkey’s integrity. This terrorist organization, operated mainly in the east and south-east of Turkey, carried out their first strike on August 15, 1984, which were followed by many more.

Since then, many decisive policies and planned operations by security forces have been put into place against terrorism, especially after 1992. At that time, more efficient and long-term operations were started by the security forces in both rural and urban areas in order to keep control in the field. Therefore, there has been a dramatic decline in PKK terrorist actions since 1993 (see the illustration on next page) (8).

At the 5th Congress of the PKK that took place in North Iraq (January 8-27, 1995), the PKK realized that their groups were becoming more and more passive in all the regions, that communications with the PKK supporters in settlements had broken down, and that many of the terrorists who were sent to the urban cities to overcome the apathy and to provide logistic support had, in fact, deserted the organization or been caught by the police in the meantime (9). At the same congress, a decision was made to use any and all types of actions; including the suicide bombers (also known as the HAMAS type) (10) of suicide attacks.

During this time, security forces developed effective fighting strategies and counterterrorist measures: these included activities such as maintaining long-term missions in the mountains and in the rural areas where the terrorists camped and had shelters, destroying the terrorist camps, getting the citizens’ support by increasing their awareness of the negative aspects of terrorism and at the same time minimizing the terrorists’ pressure on the citizens who suffered from terrorism, and establishing Special Police, Military Forces, and the Temporary Guards Unit (11) in the villages to fight against terrorism, particularly in rural areas.

Consequently, the PKK could no longer carry out classic actions such as armed attacks, waylaying, and kidnapping—either in urban cities or in rural areas. Therefore, at its meeting in March, 1996, the PKK decided that already planned suicide attacks should be carried out at suitable times and places. As a result, the first suicide attack carried out in Turkey was on June 30, 1996. A female PKK terrorist pretending to be pregnant walked into a group of soldiers and detonated the bomb which was placed on her body: 8 soldiers died and 29 were injured (12).

According to Terrorist Event Statistics, in the period from June 30, 1996 to July 5, 1999, the PKK attempted a total of 21 suicide attacks; 15 of them were actually carried out and 6 of them were intercepted. As a result of these attacks, 19 people died and 138 were wounded. Most of the victims were civilians, policemen, and soldiers.

Several cases from Turkey are provided below, highlighting how and why the suicide bombers are chosen, what the profile of the suicide attackers is, what motivates them, and what type of targets are chosen.

The Case of the PKK: The Background to the Suicide Attacks

As mentioned before, the PKK was the first terrorist organization that carried out the suicide attacks in Turkey; however, it began losing its effectiveness in rural areas in 1993. Terrorist groups need to be active to be able to survive and terrorist actions are vital in the life of terrorists. As the number of successful actions decreased everyday and the cases of deserters increased, the leaders of the PKK chose a new action to refresh the philosophy of the organization. Thus, the inactivity of the organization lead to suicide attacks entering the agenda.

In addition to the inactivity, terrorist leader Abdullah Ocalan played an important role in the development of PKK suicide attacks. On, October 9, 1998, as a result of Turkish diplomatic pressure, Ocalan had to leave Syria where he had led the PKK for over 20 years. This shocked both the organization and Ocalan himself. Consequently, the deportation of Ocalan played a significant part in the occurrence of the suicide attacks. Following this deportation, some imprisoned PKK members set themselves on fire as a sign of protest against the deportation. In seven separate events, three protesters died.

In November, 1998, Ocalan was detained in Italy and the Turkish government started the extradition procedures for him. This attempt was not successful and Ocalan disappeared again. The PKK terrorists continued to set themselves on fire. When Ocalan noticed that the PKK members were becoming depressed and unmotivated, he made a public statement using MED TV (13). He said:

“I do not approve the burnings. I am angry with the ones who set themselves on fire. I strongly insist on stopping this. If there is something to burn, it is not your sacred lives but the persons who deserve to be burned and the institutions that are in front of our eyes. Get ready for them, stop burning yourselves, and get yourself sharpened, organized and prepared, I am talking about a very serious preparation” (14).

Following his speech, a female PKK terrorist carried out a suicide attack targeting a military personnel bus, on December 24, 1998 in the province of Van.

At the same time, three terrorists were caught at different times and places while they were preparing for suicide attacks (15). As a result of intensive diplomatic contacts and operations, Ocalan was arrested on February 16, 1999 in Kenya and was brought to Turkey. Following the capture of Ocalan, the PKK leaders called for suicide attacks, promoting attacks as a scare tactic (16). In response, 6 suicide attacks were carried out. As a result of these attacks, 2 people died and 33 were injured.

Again, three members of PKK were caught as they were preparing for suicide attacks (17). The trail of Ocalan, which started on May 31, 1999, ended on June 29, 1999 with a death sentence decision. A few days later, on July 5, 1999, a suicide attack targeting the police was carried out in Adana. As a result, 14 people were wounded, most of whom were policemen. It was expected that the attacks might continue, especially if the death sentence were carried out. However, as the death sentence has not been executed and the Turkish State has exhibited a decisive policy in fighting against terrorism, there have been no suicide attacks carried out by PKK terrorists since then.

Apart from the above reasons, the crises in the psychology of the Organization should be taken in consideration as the causes of PKK suicide attacks. One psychologist, Alkan, who examined the psychological dimension of suicide attacks, in his article The Psycho-dynamic Realities in Suicide Attacks of Terrorist Organizations, includes crises of the organizational psychology as one possible cause of suicide attacks:

The organization feels diminished and tries any new ideas to build itself up.

The organization is disintegrating and thus enters a deep depression, taking actions that are akin to madness.

The organization fears it has lost touch at the grass roots level and thus tries to reinvent itself with new actions.

The organization is demoralized and having a nervous breakdown. Death becomes the ultimate power play.

The organization has reached the point where it threatens its members and partisans; this threat includes following orders without question, as in the message, “Be ready to commit suicide when it is necessary!”

The organization, inter alia, tries to break up the non-compromising policy of the State against terrorism by violence. It aims, therefore, to make violence uncontrollable (18). Besides all these reasons, vengeance, proving themselves, vendettas, or being forced to suicide against their will can be included in the list of the causes of PKK suicide attacks.

The Profile of PKK Suicide Attackers

When one looks into the backgrounds, family structures, personalities, and organizational actions of the PKK terrorists, one sees that those who hold a grudge against society, those who feel embarrassed at their failure to achieve success in schools or in their jobs, those who have been considered not to be useful anymore because of their age (19) or those who have a relative who died in an encounter or who was caught by security forces and put in prison are the members chosen to carry out the suicide missions.

However, some suicide attackers are forced against their will to carry out these actions. The terrorist Bayram Yaruk, who joined the suicide attack that was carried out by PKK terrorist Leyla Kaplan in Adana on October 25, 1996, said during the interview after his arrest; “The task had been given to Türkan Adıyaman by Mehmet Yamac, but she had not accepted the order and then she was killed. Following Yamac’s order, Leyla Kaplan, who saw the killing of Adıyaman, accepted the mission and carried it out” (20).

It is also interesting to see that female terrorists who have difficulties adapting to the hard rural life of the organization and have psychological and health problems are often specially chosen for suicide attacks (21). Alkan, who examined the reasons why more female PKK members were assigned than male PKK members as suicide attackers (22), explained the reasons as follows:

Developing the psychology of “uselessness” of female terrorists inside the organization which is then compensated by considering suicide attackers as heroes in the eyes of the organization.

The knowledge that security forces treat women terrorists more tolerantly in body searches, because of societal traditions.

The easy camouflage of bombs over the body of female terrorists pretending to be pregnant.

The belief that women are more emotional than men and thus women are more easily conditioned (23).

The Process Up To the Explosion of the Bomb

The suicide bomber who has been chosen from among the terrorists is then carefully readied for the suicide attack, starting with the method of identifying the chosen. Once the organization’s leaders decide to instigate a suicide attack, the attacker is chosen, usually in front of the group, to encourage him/ her and to motivate the whole group. During this meeting some others might volunteer too. Then the chosen member undergoes training, appropriate to the characteristics of the action. The trainer explains how to bind the bombs around the body, what points to take into account, how to camouflage, how to come closer to the target and how to ignite the bomb. The bombs are even bound to the body of the terrorist a few times as practice and then taken off. When it is decided that the terrorist is ready for the action, he/ she is given the names of helpers and connections that will take him/her to the target. In this way the process of suicide bombing is instituted.

The bombs and their mechanisms are not brought to the suicide point by the suicide bombers. Bombs are brought to the place by other members of the organization in order to reduce the risk of capture. During this process, the helpers who have been ordered to assist the bomber wait for the suicide bomber’s arrival and connect with him/her. After the meeting, one or two days before the action day, they reconnoiter the site if necessary. Then they wait for the appointed time (24). Waiting either in a helper’s home or a covered area near the target, the suicide bomber binds the bombs on him/herself and wears the necessary camouflage. At that point, the bomber gets to the target under the control of the helper or another member of organization.

The actual aim of the suicide bomber is to reach the target and create the most possible damage to the target. The terrorist reaches the target, and explodes the bomb by pulling the linchpin, before anyone is aware of his/ her intent. It might be possible that if the terrorist thinks he/she is going to be detected as he/she is getting nearer to the target, he/she initiates the attack at that point.

The Targets of the PKK Suicide Attacks

When examining the suicide attacks, it can be observed that first, police and military forces that perform an effective role in the fight against terrorism have been targeted.

Second, the suicide attacks target public events such as the anniversary of the Republic (25) where many civilians and high State officials gathered (see page 14, the case of Sivas). Thirdly, the terrorists, in particular after Ocalan’s capture, also started to target individual governmental officials. For example, in April, 1999, two separate suicide attacks were carried out by the PKK, targeting the respective Governors of Bingol and Hakkari Provinces in the eastern part of Turkey (26). As a result of those attacks, 2 people died and 10 were injured.

Some Examples of Suicide Attacks Carried Out in Turkey by PKK

The case of Tunceli

As mentioned earlier, the first PKK suicide attack carried out in Turkey was in May, 1996. The attacker was a female terrorist pretending to be pregnant. As the target was a military base, all victims were soldiers: 8 died, 29 were injured. It was later learned that the female attacker had seven brothers and sisters and had graduated from high school. According to her friends, she had psychological problems during her school years and had difficulties in communicating with other people. She had previously been arrested on the charge of helping and harboring PKK terrorists. After her husband had been arrested and put in prison on the charge of terrorism, she joined the PKK terrorist activities in rural areas (27). It was determined that the female terrorist carried out the suicide attack to prove herself inside the organization and to take revenge on the State. This was the first suicide attack and the attacker was a female; therefore, security forces were caught unprepared.

The case of Sivas

On October 29, 1996, at a regular police check-point, police became suspicious of two men and one woman in a minibus and took them to the police station. There, they decided to go to experts from the Counter Terrorism Department to investigate. As the suspects were put into a police car, the female terrorist exploded the bombs placed on her body. In response to the attack, police carried out several operations to catch other people involved. During the operations, nine suspects were arrested. The statements of these suspects showed that the actual targets were the high level officials and public who were attending the Republic Celebration (28).

In relation to this suicide attack, some significant points about the goals of the terrorists and the methods of fighting them were realized:

For the first time, the targets were high level officials and civilians instead of the security and military forces,

It was clear that the main aim of a suicide attack is to kill as many as possible,

The security check-points aimed at finding suspects of terrorism were very important,

Once a suicide bomber set the bomb, it might be too late and practically impossible to learn or change anything.

The case of Van

On December 24, 1998, a female PKK member carried out a suicide attack targeting a military bus which was transporting personnel. The attack left 1 dead and 24 injured. The investigation showed that the suicide attacker had left university and joined the PKK. One of her brothers was a PKK member as well. This implies that the PKK suicide bombers are chosen from people who have family members or relatives in the terrorist organization (29). An important lesson can be learnt from the Van case, in particular as to security measures. The fact that a security car was behind the bus played an important role in minimizing the impact of the attack.

The case of Batman

In March, 1999, when a suspicious looking pregnant woman was seen in front of a police station in Batman city center, a policeman who had been already briefed by his chiefs on possible suicide attackers went out of the station and warned the people around not to get near the suspect. As soon as the terrorist understood that she would not be able to reach the police station, her intended target, she exploded 3 of the 12 bombs on her body and was blown into pieces instantly. Two days after the attack, the identity of the terrorist was revealed proudly by the PKK (30). This case shows how important it is to brief staff about suicide attack targets and potential suicide bombers (31).

The case of Istanbul

On March 27, 1999, a suspicious-looking woman with a backpack went close to a parked police bus. A policeman asked her to stop. She immediately pulled a linchpin and exploded the bombs on her body. In fact, her target was the policemen resting behind the bus. As a result of this attack, 11 people were injured. The case shows the importance of police alertness in taking precautionary measures against suicide attacks.

In addition to the PKK, other terrorist organizations have carried out suicide attacks in Turkey as well. For example, the left wing terrorist organization DHKP/C (32) and al- Qaida-linked terrorist groups have also been responsible for terrorist acts.

The Case of DHKP/C

The Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/ Front (DHKP/C) was originally formed in 1978 as Devrimci Sol, or Dev Sol. It was a splinter faction of the Turkish People’s Liberation Party/Front. Renamed in 1994 after factional infighting, it still espouses a Marxist ideology and is virulently anti- US and anti-NATO. The group finances its activities chiefly through armed robbery and extortion. Since the late 1980s, the group has primarily targeted Turkish security and military officials. It began a campaign against foreign interests in 1990, which included attacks against US military and diplomatic personnel and facilities. In its first significant terrorist act, DHKP/C on January 9, 1996, assassinated a prominent Turkish businessman (33).

DHKP/C Suicide Attacks in Turkey

The DHKP/C added suicide bombings to its operations in 2001, with successful attacks against Turkish police in Istanbul in January and September. These attacks left 3 dead and 28 injured. Security operations in Turkey weakened the group and the DHKP/C did not conduct any major terrorist attacks in 2003, although a female suicide bomber’s explosive belt was detonated by accident in 2003 in Ankara, in a restroom, while preparing for an attack. On July 24, 2004, another mistaken detonation on a bus in Istanbul occurred, killing the DHKP/C terrorist and 3 others and injuring 15 people. On July 1, 2005, another DHKP/C terrorist was killed in Ankara in an attempted suicide attack on the ministry of justice (34).

The Case of Religiously Inspired Terrorist Organizations

In Turkey, radical Islamic movements have been observed since the 1960s. The Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979 added support to these movements. After the revolution, many religious books from Egypt and Iran were translated into Turkish and the term “Islamic Movement” was consequently introduced among the religiously motivated groups in Turkey (35). Especially after the 1980s, religiously inspired terrorist organizations became more active and were responsible for many terror incidents in Turkey. The IBDA-C (36), Vasat, Tevhid Selam (The Army of Jerusalem) (37), and the Turkish Hezbollah (38) were all active terrorist organizations in the 1990s. However, most of those terrorist organizations’ members have been jailed, so the groups generally do not carry out terrorist attacks currently.

Today, besides al-Qaida linked terrorist groups, only the Turkish Hezbollah is still active in Turkey. It should be clarified that the Turkish Hezbollah is completely different than the Lebanese Hezbollah. According to Ozoran, the Turkish Hezbollah has no official organic ties with either the Lebanonbased terrorist group also called Hezbollah or its offshoots throughout the Middle East. For instance, Lebanon’s Hezbollah has been active not only in Lebanon, but also throughout Europe, North America, South America and Africa. The Turkish Hezbollah, on the other hand, has not perpetrated attacks outside of Turkey (39).

In the late 1990s, Hezbollah attempted to widen its area of operation to cities in the western part of Turkey, especially Istanbul. The effort was stopped by major police operations carried out against Hezbollah cells in and around Istanbul in early 2000; one of these led to the killing of Huseyin Velioglu, the Ilimciler (40) group leader, and the arrest of two top leaders, Edip Gumus and Cemal Tutar. No major terrorist incidents have been carried out by the organization since then.

While suicide attacks have been carried out in Turkey by religiously inspired terrorist groups, it should be pointed out that Islam does not condone suicide attacks at all (41).

However, the first radical religiously motivated suicide attack carried out in Turkey was by an al-Qaida linked terrorist group (42) in 2003.

Al-Qaida Linked Suicide Attacks in Turkey

On November 15, 2003, two simultaneous suicide attacks were carried out by a terrorist group linked to al-Qaida terrorist organization. The attacks targeted the Neve Shalom and Beth-Israel synagogues in Istanbul. Just five days after these attacks, further suicide attacks targeting the UK Consulate and the HSBC Bank Headquarters in Istanbul were carried out by the same terrorist group with bomb-loaded vehicles. They resulted in the deaths of 2 police officers and 58 civilians with a further 753 casualties.

In the follow up police operation, 229 people were arrested, of whom 60 have already been tried and sent to prison for their involvement in the attacks. The investigations showed that targets for bomb loaded vehicle attacks were identified at meetings with Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan as early as 2002, but due to the lack of available equipment and resources they were postponed until 2003 (43).

Measures and Actions that should be taken against the Suicide Attacks

Counter-terrorist procedures that should be implemented to prevent the suicide attacks can be examined under the following headings:

1- Intelligence and Operations Aimed at Detecting and Preventing Attacks

Based on Turkey’s experiences, the following actions and measures can be identified as relevant in the fight against terrorism and in particular, against suicide attacks. The previous experience shows that it is very difficult, even practically impossible to prevent a suicide attack after the suicide bomber has set up the explosives on his/her body and started to move towards the target. After that point any intervention by the security forces can only reduce the possible damage (44).

The most successful measures that can be taken to prevent this kind of attack are creating an effective intelligence network and operational activities based on the outcome of this work. In that way, the terrorists can be made ineffective through early intervention. All suicide attacks require stages of preparation (i.e., transporting the explosives near the target, meeting with the comrades who will support the terrorist in this attack, exploring the place where the action will take place, collecting intelligence). If the security forces can intervene at one of these stages, it is very likely that the attack will be prevented.

In this context, counter-terrorism departments work relentlessly to find potential suspects and send the information they gather about these suspects to the Headquarters where the information is evaluated and sent on to the field units in order to carry out operations. Following this method, nine suicide bombers have been captured before being able to attack the police and military forces. Another operational approach to identifying the suspects and preventing suicide attacks is to establish security checkpoints at the entrance of critical cities and towns (45).

2- Keeping Personnel Updated about Terrorist Threats

Good communication with frequent updates is crucial. After identifying targets, all police and military staff, including private security staff should be informed and warned about any potential terror threats and suicide attacks. This is especially important as the groups that prevent the attacks are often those most frequently targeted (see earlier mentioned cases of Batman and Istanbul).

3- Increasing Physical Measures

The physical measures are very important in preventing suicide attacks. Several examples are listed below:

A “security zone” with barriers or fences should be established around the police and military buildings to prevent direct access of cars and people.

All cars should be stopped and checked in this zone. Also, the movements and behaviors of all persons in the security zone should be observed carefully.

If any suspicious behavior is detected, the person should be stopped and ordered to put his/her hands over his/her head, should be approached carefully, his/her hands should be immobilized, then his/her body should be searched properly (46).

If any explosive material is found with or on the person, he/she should be immobilized, then the bomb experts should be called to examine the material and to deactivate it.

In addition to the security zone, vulnerable areas around the buildings should be monitored by the hidden cameras and the observations should be recorded.

4- Updating the Rules for Visitors and Staff

Another important measure is updating the rules for the visitors and the staff working in buildings which might be targeted. For example:

Any personnel or visitors who do not have identity cards should not be allowed into the buildings or periphery.

Visitors and personnel should use separate entrances and units should make appropriate arrangements for this.

Identity documents such as official identity cards, driving licenses, or passports should be taken from the visitors and entrance cards should be given to them. The visits should take place in specially designated visitor rooms where available.

In addition to these above mentioned measures, all central and local security units should take all necessary measures and apply them by considering the intelligence gathered (47).These should be implemented without creating public alarm. If the citizens see that extensive precautions are taken, they might become afraid and worried unnecessarily and avoid going to official buildings. The measures taken, therefore, should be prudent and balanced.

Conclusion

Terrorism is a global problem and suicide terrorist attacks have become a widely used tool. Turkey has had serious problems with terrorism for over 30 years, but has succeeded in developing certain mechanisms and approaches to deal with terrorism and its impacts.

The emergence of suicide attacks in Turkey is very much linked to the events surrounding the PKK leader Ocalan. Turkey has developed several effective measures to prevent suicide attacks such as intelligence and operations aimed at detecting and preventing the attacks, keeping personnel updated about terrorist threats – especially suicide attacks, increasing physical measures and establishing the “security zone” as a checkpoint, and updating the rules for visitors and staff. It is believed that all countries along with all relevant national and international agencies, need to cooperate more and collaborate in the global fight against terrorism, and in particular, the suicide attacks.

Endnotes

1. Wikipedia (The Free Encyclopedia), “Suicide Attacks”, Retrieved August 20, 2006 from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_bomber

2. Karademir, K. “Suicide Attacks”, 2nd edition, Counter Terrorism Department, Ankara 2003, p. 2.

3. On 21 May 1991, Rajiv Gandhi was killed in a suicide attack carried out by a Sikh or Hindu terrorist. In this attack 30 people died.

4. On 23 October 1983, in Beirut, Lebanon, there were two suicide attacks with car bombs, one targeting the Command Headquarters of French Forces and another one the Command Headquarters of American Marines. 260 American soldiers and 58 Frenchmen died.

5. Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Bangladesh, Chechnya, China, Colombia, Croatia, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, the Palestinian territories, Panama, the Philippines, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom, Uzbekistan, and Yemen (from the Wikipedia).

6. PKK, led by Abdullah Ocalan, has recently changed its name to “Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress” (PKK-KONGRA GEL, but is still known as PKK).

7. These attacks include attacks with arms and bombs, laying land mines, throwing Molotov cocktails, waylaying, and kidnapping.

8. “Terrorist Events Statistics” prepared by the Counter Terrorism Department, Ankara, 1998.

9. The documents that were found in the rural areas of Bitlis Province in September, 1995.

10. The term is being used to refer to the specific type of suicide attacks widely used by HAMAS.

11. This unit was formed by the local residents and operated under the army command.

12. The official note prepared by Tunceli Police about the suicide attack, July, 1996.

13. MED-TV is sponsored by PKK. It broadcasts out of British satellite networks but also has studios in Belgium. Retrieved August 25, 2006 from http:// www.med-tv.com/

14. The broadcast of MED TV (1998, December 13).

15. The PKK member Elif Maviş was arrested by Istanbul Police on 30 December 1998. Adem Nikbay and M.Necip Kurtcebe were arrested in Istanbul on 15 January, 1999.

16. The broadcast of MED TV (1999, February 17).

17. PKK terrorists; Bahar Erçık was arrested in the province of Sirnak on 19 March 1999, Nebi Kurhan, in Gaziantep, on 9 April 1999 and Umut Gulay, in Mus, on 14 May 1999.

18. Alkan, N. “The psycho-dynamic realities in suicide attacks of terrorist organizations”, Police Academy Journal, November-December, 1997.

19. Abdurrahman Marangoz who was born in 1956 and caught as he had prepared a suicide attack, in Diyarbakır on 27 October, 1996. He was directed to this kind of action, because he had been having difficulty in carrying out active actions because of his age.

20. The official note prepared by Adana Police about the terrorist Bayram Yaruk, October, 1996.

21. An official circular, dated 23 February, 1999 and numbered 46847, sent to all provinces by the Turkish National Police, Counter Terrorism Department, Ankara.

22. In total 10 female PKK members carried out suicide attacks as compared to 6 male. 4 female and 5 male terrorist were caught during the preparation for the attacks.

23. Alkan N. “The psycho-dynamic realities in suicide attacks of terrorist organizations”, Police Academy Journal, November-December, 1997.

24. The note about A.Marangoz by Diyarbakır Police Department, October, 1996.

25. In Turkey, the 29 of October is celebrated on the occasion of the anniversary of the republic declaration made in 1923.

26. The governor of Bingol, Suleyman Kamci was attacked on 5 April and the governor of Hakkari, Nihat Canpolat was attacked on 8 April, 1999. Canpolat was injured.

27. The note prepared by Tunceli Police Department about the incident, June, 1996.

28. The note prepared by Sivas Police Department about the incident, October, 1996.

29. Karademir, K., (2003). (unpublished study) [sic]

30. The broadcast of MED-TV (1999, March 5).

31. Ten days before this attack, Counter Terrorism Department prepared a specific note about suicide attacks and potential suicide bombers, and sent it to all relevant branches in the entire Country (23 February 1999).

32 -33-34. DHKP/C, Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party-Front, Retrieved on August 25, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_ People’s_Liberation_Party-Front

35. Necati Alkan, “Turkey’s Fight against Terrorism”, Stradigma, October, 2003. Retrieved on August 25, 2006 from www.stradigma.com

36. IBDA-C, the Great Eastern Islamic Fighters Front was founded in 1970 by Salih Izzet Erdis (Salih Mirzabeyoglu). The group moved from rhetoric to violence in the 1990s, culminating in a series of 90 bombings and attacks in 1994. Retrieved on August 25, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/IBDA-C

37. Tevhid Selam/Army of Jerusalem was responsible for killing some prominent Turkish writers in the period from 1990 to 1992 (Wikipedia).

38. Turkish Hezbollah originally operated mainly in the cities of Diyarbakir, Van, Batman, and Mardin. Members of the terrorist group habitually gathered in and around bookstores, where they discussed their ideologies and spread their propaganda.

39. Özeren Süleyman, (University of North Texas & Cécile Van de Voorde, University of South Florida), “Turkish Hezbollah: A Case Study of Radical Terrorism”, The Journal of Turkish Weekly. Retrieved on August 26, 2006 from http://www.turkishweekly. net/articles

40. Due to ideological divergences and leadership disputes, Turkish Hezbollah separated into two major groups: Ilimciler (Scientists) and Menzilciler (Rangers). The Ilimciler, led by Huseyin Velioglu, met at the Ilim Bookstore, whereas the Menzilciler, led by Fidan Gungor, congregated at the Menzil bookstore. Besides a leadership struggle, the two factions were opposed in the tactics they used to accomplish their goal. While the Ilimciler defended armed struggle and comprised Hezbollah’s most brutal factions, the Menzilciler believed it was too early for such radical action and opposed, for instance, attacks on suspected PKK-KONGRA GEL members (Wikipedia).

41. ‘’Suicide is a major sin in Islam,’’ pointed out Maher Hathout, imam of the Islamic Center in Los Angeles. Ibrahim Hooper of the Council on American- Islamic Relations said that suicide ‘’would not be in accord with Islamic beliefs and practices’’. The Koran says to Muslims, ‘’Do not kill yourselves’’ and warns that those who disobey will be ‘’cast into the fire.’’ The Prophet Mohammed is reported to have said that “a suicide cannot go to paradise”. Retrieved on August 26, 2006 from http://www.apologeticsindex.org/

42. The terrorist group was formed by Habib Akdas along with a few men who met Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan in the late 1990s. Having been trained in Afghanistan, they returned to Turkey where they formed their own groups (Istanbul Counter Terrorism Department, 2004).

43. The note prepared by Istanbul Counter Terrorism Department, February, 2004.

44. See pages 6, 7, the cases of Sivas, Batman, and Istanbul.

45. See page 6, the cases of Sivas.

46. See page 8, the DHKP/C terrorist was detected at the entrance of the Ministry of Justice in an attempt of a suicide attack.

47. The measures against suicide attacks have been determined and published in all provinces in different official circulars and all related units have been warned. This paper was presented at the Conference “Understanding and Responding to Terrorism: A Multi-Dimensional Approach”, Washington D.C. USA, 8-9 September 2006.